114 Stefan Koelsch the music imitates language (such as drum and whistle languages). This feature partly distinguishes language from music: The degrees of freedom differ between language and music with regard to the construction of propositions (as well as the ambiguity of meaning). Note that, in reality, there is a transitional zone between “propositional” and “non-propositional”: For example, instrumental music can prime representations of concepts such as “some” and “all”, and modi ers, modals, or connectives are often used imprecisely in everyday language (think of the ‘logical and’, or the ‘logical or’). However, anyone interested in how listening to music with propositional semantics might feel like, just has to listen to a song with lyrics con-taining propositional semantics. The interesting phenomenon in this regard is, in my view, that humans appreciate music as communicative medium, even though (or perhaps because) there are no operators such as quanti ers, modals, or connectives. Cross (2011) offers one interesting hypothesis in this regard: In music, due to rela-tional goals that involve “the formation, maintenance or restructuring of connec-tions and af liations between participants”, the truth of meanings is “not required to be made mutually explicit” (ibid.).In music (particularly in Western music), we are often dealing with a description (not with a veri cation), and with certainty (not with knowledge). Moreover, in the section on emotional musicogenic meaning, it was argued that music has the ad-vantage of de ning a feeling sensation without this de nition being biased by the use of words (think of Mahler’s quote that, “if a composer could say what he had to say in words, he would not bother trying to say it in music”). With regard to prop-ositional semantics and binary (true-false) truth conditions, this also means that there is no “true” or “false” with regard to the inner application of a rule for the us-age of a musical concept.Communication vs. expression Meaning conveyed by music is often referred to as “expressive”, as opposed to the “communicative” nature of language. For example, Slevc & Patel (2011) mentioned that “linguistic, but not musical, semantics exists for communicative reasons”, and that “instrumental music might better be conceived of as a form of expression rather than of communication” (ibid.). Apart from the fact that this depends on how music is used in a particular culture (see also Cross, 2011; Seifert, 2011), it should also be noted that the two terms “communication” (in the sense of conveying speci c, un-ambiguous information) and “expression” (in the sense of conveying rather unspe-ci c, ambiguous information) are normally used as if there were two separate realms of conveying meaningful information (communication and expression) with a clear border between them.However, as outlined above, this does not seem to be the case. Rather, there is a continuum of the degree of speci city of meaning information, with “expression” being located towards one end, and “communication” towards the other (due to the lack of clear borders between music and language, I have proposed the concept of a music-language continuum; Koelsch, 2012).