292 Michael Spitzer the world. According to Charles Nussbaum, aesthetic fear is ‘off-line’, insofar as the listener is not presented with any real danger. But aesthetic emotions in general, and musical emotions in particular, are distanced. As in medieval art or Byzantine icons, their mode of representation is non-realist, other-worldly. It is in differing from the viewer or listener’s experience that these art-works take us into another world. We, on our part, need to learn to ‘read’ the emotions inscribed within a peculiar histori-cal style. Learning these styles educates us to understand emotions at a more soph-isticated level. For instance, there is the old canard that neuroscientists aim to image responses to musical dissonance within brain regions. Yet listeners can learn to en-joy dissonance; to come to appreciate dissonance as consonance, and to enjoy the joy in Schoenberg. Dissonances which may sound like expressions of fear at one level can become – once the listener has learned the language – like expressions of tender-ness. Emotions, then, are subject to aesthetic and structural context dependency. This is the highest form of metaphorical hearing, and I have explored some of these questions more broadly in my contribution to the recent Music Analysis Special Is-sue on Music & Emotions (Spitzer 2011). But, given all the different jobs metaphor has been seen to do in this essay, perhaps ‘metaphor’ is too limited a word. References Heidegger, Martin, [1927] 2000: Being and Time, trans. John Macquarrie and Edward Robinson (Oxford: Blackwell).Huron, David, 2006: Sweet Anticipation: Music and the Psychology of Expectation (Cambridge, MA: MIT Press).Izard, Carol and Brian Ackerman, 2004: ‘Motivational, Organizational, and Regulatory Func-tions of Discrete Emotions’. In Lewis, Michael, and Jeanette M. Haviland-Jones (eds.), Hand-book of Emotions (London: The Guilford Press), pp. 253–64.Juslin, Patrik, and Sloboda, John, 2001: ‘Psychological Perspectives on Music and Emotion’, in Patrik Juslin and John Sloboda (eds.), Music and Emotion: Theory and Research (Oxford: Ox-ford University Press), pp. 71–104.Kivy, Peter, 1989: Sound Sentiment: an Essay on the Musical Emotions (Ithaca, NY: Cornell Uni-versity Press).Levinson, Jerrold, 1996: ‘Musical Expressiveness’, in Levinson, The Pleasures of Aesthetics: Philo-sophical Essays (Ithaca, NY: Cornell University Press), pp. 90–125.Oatley, Keith, 2004: Emotions: A Brief History (New York: Wiley-Blackwell).Öhman, Arne, and Wiens, Stefan, 2003: ‘On the Automaticity of Autonomic Responses in Emotion: An Evolutionary Perspective’, in Richard Davidson, Klaus Scherer, and Hill Gold-smith (eds.), Handbook of Affective Sciences (Oxford: Oxford University Press), pp. 256–75.